Psychological Testing Essay Example for Free

Psychological Testing Essay Individual intelligence tests are of two types; Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and Wechsler tests. They tests individuals intelligence in arithmetic, vocabulary, comprehension, verbal amongst other disciplines. Individual tests are mostly used in education placement, clinical assessment and to measure an individuals skills in the event a wide a large of individuals are being examined (Roid, 2003). Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test is used in testing children that are intellectually deficient in order to place them in the special education programmes. These tests are taken individually. Individual tests are characterized by several advantages; they make it possible for the examiner to interact with the examinee establishing a rapport in which the interaction can be observed and assessed. They also provide information on why some methods and tactics used to measure intelligence fail. Individual tests also make it possible for the examiner to assess a variety of abilities in examinees as it is not restricted. Individual tests provide a better way of assessing children are emotionally disturbed (Roid, 2003). These tests make it possible for assessments to be made on examinees that are in any physical or emotional condition such as tired, sick or anxious. Group intelligence tests involve assessing a series of many different problems in a mass of examinees. They are commonly used in schools and the military. They could be aptitude tests, scholastic assessment tests or tests of cognitive abilities. They are characterised by pen and paper, usually are time limited, involve almost nil examiner to examinee interaction are have multiple choices making them easy to score. They are normally used in school and job placements, and in the study of certain norms or phenomena in a population (Santrock, 2008). Group tests have the advantage of simplifying examiners role as they are quick and easy to administer. It is also possible to administer them on simultaneously to large numbers of examinees. Scoring in group tests is more objective as compared to individual tests. Group tests are often non-verbal (Santrock, 2008). Group tests give data that is more reliable as they make it possible for large numbers to be studied which provide good representative of the entire population, the resulting data and conclusion is therefore more reliable as it is more representative of the population than if the norms were being studied in an individual as is with individual tests. 7. The advantages and disadvantages of projective versus objective personality assessment methods Projective personality assessment method is a test that involves use of open-ended questions to examine the person being tested. Projective tests involve questions that are unstructured hence give the person being examined more freedom to respond in the appropriate way as compared to objective tests. These tests normally require the examinee to respond to stimuli that is ambiguous (Hilsenroth Segal, 2004). It is based on the fact that people respond to stimuli that are ambiguous in ways that bring to light their feelings, desires and needs. The advantage of this method is that makes it possible for the psychologist to study and examine unconscious aspects of subject’s personality. These tests are not transparent hence create no opportunity for subjects to lie or fake their personality traits. The weakness of projective tests is that the collected information is not as reliable and viable as is needed. This is based on the fact that the psychologists that use the method assume that the subjects can not lie about their personality. Analysing data collected by this method can be time consuming and tiring as it needs the psychologist to go through it by himself. New technology such as computer scoring which is fast can not be used in this method (Hilsenroth Segal, 2004). Objective personality assessment method involves the use of questions and items that are standardized, specific and clear in testing individuals under study. These tests are characterized by limited choice of the examinees responses. Most of the questions are designed such that they require yes or no, and true or false responses. Objective testing has several advantages. Objective methods fast to carry out. This is attributed to the fact that the answers required are directive and do not need the respondents to think or expand on the answers giving unnecessary details that waste time (Hilsenroth Segal, 2004). This enables the data to be collected and analysed within a short time availing results within the required time. This method is also more economical as compared to the projective testing method. This because the questions are easy to prepare and the fact that all they need is yes or no responses implies that they do not require a lot of space. This saves on the cost of printing the questionnaire as less pages are required. The questions are also easy to answer making the researcher to collect the needed data very fast hence does not spend a lot of time in the field which saves money that would have been used on upkeep and transport. Objective test methods also make it possible for technology to be used such as computer scoring which is faster, less tiring and more efficient as compared to projective tests that require the researcher to go through the responses by himself in order to come up with the results ( Hilsenroth Segal, 2004). . Like any other method, objective assessment methods also have disadvantages. These methods usually involve questions that are transparent which makes the individuals under study to know what the psychologists want to study in them. This makes them lie or forge answers. In the event the individual carrying out the test does not include lie scales which provide information to the researcher on the likelihood of the subject lying then wrong data is collected. This tests also characterized by collection of biased data as it provides opportunity for the subject to respond not the way things are but the way they wish things were. (Hilsenroth Segal, 2004). The structure of the questions does not allow the subjects to add more information on their yes or no, true or false answers. This could cause the psychologist to miss out o9n vital information. 3. Some of the misconceptions concerning the differences between aptitude and achievement tests. Achievement tests are the common tests that are usually given out in classrooms and educational assessments. They are used to test what an individual can do or what they know. They are usually administered after some activity to test if individuals have grasped whatever was being taught. Examples are classroom quizzes, continuous assessment tests, driving tests, final examinations amongst others. Achievement tests in school are used to determine whether students understand what has been taught, which classes to place them, they are also used to rate schools and predict an individuals success in certain disciplines in future if they are doing well. Aptitude tests usually are carried out to assess the mental abilities of individuals. These tests based on the concept that innate mental abilities of individuals can be measured. Aptitude tests are usually carried out to test student’s mental ability as they are believed to give a picture of how the student can perform academically. It is believed that those who pass the test qualify academically for what course they are applying for. Examples of aptitude test include SATs. Aptitude tests have been referred to as quality measurement on ones mental ability. However, critics of the concept argue that innate abilities can not be measured hence the test just like any other test is used to measure what an individual has been able to achieve by the time the test is being carried out. The results of this test hence demonstrate the individuals’ achievement in the subjects that were being tested on. This is true in spite of what the subject the questions are testing on. As such, aptitude tests are very much the same as achievement tests. The difference between the two tests however is in the assumption about individuals that take the two tests. With aptitude test, there is a misconception that there is equal opportunity to learn for everyone taking the test. It also is assumed that the interest of individuals taking aptitude test in learning is equal and also in demonstrating the learnt ability on the test. With achievement test it is assumed that the tests usually are based on instructions of a course or on some training that is not necessarily available to all the individuals taking the test. The misconception concerning the difference between the two tests therefore lies in the assumption that there is equal opportunity for passing in aptitude tests while achievement tests can only be passed by those who have access to the course or training instructions. 6. Information is presumably gathered by the typical projective technique Projective techniques are methods of assessing personality traits of individuals that use questions that are unstructured and not specific. The questions used in this technique are not transparent implying that the individuals being studied can not identify what the researcher or a psychologist is looking from them (Lilienfeld, Wood Garb, 2001). Usually projective technique is used to study response of subjects to questions or situations that are ambiguous. It is perceived that the fact that these situations are not known to the subjects will enable them to respond appropriately without having to lie or change their personality. It is believed that individuals respond to ambiguous situations and questions in an honest way. Their response to these situations that they do not clearly understand brings out their true personality as it there is no opportunity for lie or personality to be altered or changed. Psychologists who use the method to collect information on personality argue that human beings always respond to ambiguous stimuli in a way that brings out their personal needs, wants, wishes and desires (Lilienfeld, Wood Garb, 2001). This technique is believed to make it possible for psychologists to assess the unconscious aspect of the individuals being studied character. As such, it provides no room for personality faking. Human beings are believed to have no control over the unconscious part of their psychology. The unconscious aspect of our psychology is believed to be what really defines us in terms of character. Psychologists argue that humans thought, actions hence character originate from their unconscious aspect of psychology. The fact that this technique enables the psychologist to study the subjects unconscious aspect of personality has therefore been used in gathering personality information. This technique unlike the others makes it possible for individuals being studied to consciously give information that is biased and accurate. The notion that individuals are not restricted in responding to ambiguous has made this method to be used for collecting data on personality. 4. The reasons which dictate that an organization, whether industrial or governmental, to use valid selection procedures for hiring workers. There are several reasons as to why organizations use valid selection procedures for hiring employees. These procedures are useful in the several processes that involve hiring. In selection of employees to hire, the assessment tools that are used in valid selection procedures enable organizations to identify the best individuals for the job as they are able to identify the individuals character traits that are required of the specific job. An assessment tool that is well properly developed will guide the recruitment team in selecting successful and suitable individuals for the particular occupation and position they are recruiting for. Valid selection procedures also eliminate cases of unfairness from arising making the whole process efficient and professional (Weiner Graham, 2003). Valid selection procedures for hiring are important in job placement. They enable organizations management to assign employees to the right job responsibilities and levels. Assessment helps provide information that enables organizations to make the right decisions assigning of responsibilities which increase performance hence productivity of the organization. Valid assessment procedures are important in training and development of employees. The assessment enables an organization to determine which employee needs what training. The organization is able to know if its employees have mastered training procedures and materials that are vital for operation and running of the organization (Weiner Graham, 2003). Assessments carried out enable the organization to design or make changes in training programmes so that the most needed ones are given priority. Assessment procedures also enable individual employees to identify their weaknesses hence can embark on self-development. This has positive results as it enables it to have employees that are skilful and well trained hence increasing productivity. Assessment procedures also play a great role in promotion or demotion of employees. The procedures enable the organizations management to identify employees that have been improving in their performance and skills. Those who possess managerial characteristics or even higher capabilities are identified hence promoted to greater positions that have more responsibilities (Weiner Graham, 2003). On the other hand, those who seem to making no progress or have decreasing performance are demoted as ant serious organization would not want to have employee especially those holding positions of great responsibility that are not performing. Valid assessment procedures provide a professional and fair way of carrying out promotions and demotions ensuring that the right employees are assigned to the right positions and responsibilities. Assessment procedures are also significant in career guidance and exploitation. These assessments help individuals make not only educational but career choices as well. The assessments make individuals identify the subjects they are good in hence accordingly choose careers that they will be successful in without have to strain their mental capability. The assessments procedures also enable organizations to carry out evaluation of programs. The organization is able to identify programs that benefit employees and those that do not so that it can stop wasting resources on irrelevant programs. Word Count: 2280. References Hilsenroth, M Segal, D. (2004). Comprehensive Handbook of Psychological Assessment: Personality assessment / editors. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Lilienfeld, S. O. , Wood, J. N. , Garb, H. N. (2001). The scientific status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 27-66. Roid, G. H. (2003). Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales 5th Edition: Examiners Manual. Riverside Publishing, Itaska, Illinois. Santrock, J. (2008). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (4th Ed. )Concept of Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. Weiner, I. Graham, J. (2003). Handbook of Psychology: Assessment psychology. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Embryonic Stem-cell Research - A True Faustian Bargain :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Embryonic Stem-cell Research - A True Faustian Bargain      Ã‚  Ã‚   In the debate over whether the federal government should fund embryonic stem-cell research (ESCR), our country is being offered a true Faustian bargain. In return for a hoped-for potential - it is no more than that - of deriving desperately desired medical breakthroughs in the treatment of such afflictions as Parkinson's disease, paraplegia, and diabetes, we are being asked to give the nation's imprimatur to reducing human life into a mere natural resource to be exploited and commodified.    Given the stakes, our lawmakers owe it to their country to take the time to thoroughly understand the issue before speaking in public and taking sides. Unfortunately, some senator's statements in favor of embryonic research exhibited stunning ignorance regarding the subject about which they opined. Making matters worse, the press quickly leaped upon the statements of these pro-life senators as proof that embryonic research is moral, ethical, and scientifically justified, when the reverse is actually true.    Senator Hatch's attempt to explain his pro ESCR funding position to Chris Matthews on Hardball on June 20, demonstrated that he doesn't know an embryo from a stem cell. Take the following statements:    * "After a long period of study and prayer, I found that pluripotent cells are not full human beings but can be very, very beneficial as used by science to help with all kinds of maladies...." * "It is appropriate to use pluripotent cells but inappropriate to use totipotent cells because a pluripotent cell cannot be made into a full human being. A totipotent cell can actually be replicated into a human being through even cloning." (Totipotent cells are the first to appear after fertilization and can actually develop into a completely new embryo - as occurs during identical twinning. Pluripotent [stem] cells appear a bit later. They are "undifferentiated cells" that can develop into any body part - which is why researchers wish to study them.) * "Life begins in the mother's womb, not in a refrigerator."(Embryonic)    In stating that the feds should fund the study of pluripotent cells but not totipotent cells, Senator Hatch confused several essential points. First, pluripotent cells and totipotent cells are not the same thing as the embryo itself. Rather, these cells are constituent parts of the embryonic whole just as vital organs are parts of born persons.

A Horse and Two Goats Essay

‘A Horse and Two Goats’ is a masterpiece of literature by R. K. Narayan (1906 – 2001). The writer is a brightly shining star in the galaxy of the leading literary Indian fiction writers, particularly who wrote in English including Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao. Narayan is given credit for bringing the Indian Literature in English to show the whole world. For this great service to the Indian literary world, he is rendered as the greatest Indian novelist and short story writer. see more:article on old age homes The setting of this story is in the real and small village, Kritam unlike his most of the stories. His stories have simple language and common characters that are grappling with their social problems of everyday life as we see in his story ‘A Horse and Two Goats’. Narayan has been compared to as great writers as William Faulkner and Guy de Maupassant. He has reflected humour and passions of ordinary life and exposes the bitter truths about human life in different shades and colours. With respect to this trait, he is counted a humanitarian artist in his own way and distinctive style. However, R.K. Narayan’s style has met bitter criticism for simplicity of his diction. It is said that he is too simple to be intellectually entertaining. The story has just two main characters. Muni, an old and very poor Indian and a red-faced American. Both of them represent their cultures through language. They speak their own languages and hardly can understand each other. In other words, language proves a great barrier in communication between the two individuals who belong to two entirely different cultures. This difference of cultures speaks volumes about the conflict of the East and West, with their own distinctive values and standards. Moreover, the two characters represent their respective nations. One is from the First World, America, the highly developed one and the other is from India, the Third World. Muni is symbol of austere poverty, materially as well as morally. He is in fact telling a lie to his wife when he tells her that ‘I have sold our goats to a red-faced man. He was absolutely crazy to have them, gave me all this money carried them off in his motor car’ (p.16). The American has mistakenly bought th e statue of horse. He misunderstands that the horse-statue belongs to the poor old man, Muni. His misunderstanding is owing to his utter ignorance of the Indian culture as well as his materialistic outlook. He misunderstands that money can buy anything he likes. He stands as a symbol of the American that their material superiority can make them able to buy the cultures of the poor nations with money. He time and again talks about his business and his keen desire to become a big businessman. This fact can be seen in these wistful words of him: I repeat I am not a millionaire. Ours is a modest business; after all, we can’t afford to buy more than sixty minutes of TV time in a month, which works out to two minutes a day, that’s all, although in the course of time we’ll may be sponsor a one-hour show regularly if our sales graph continues to go up†¦(p.14). Moreover, the American fails to discern the reality that the horse-statue is not the possession of the poor goat-man but it belongs to the whole village of Kritam. On contrary, Muni is very poor but he is not preoccupied with materialistic pursuits. He talks about his religious and spiritual preoccupation. According to him: †¦our pundit [†¦] told us that Vishnu is the highest god. Whenever evil men trouble us, he comes down to save us. He has come many times. The first time he incarnated as a great fish, and lifted the scriptures on his back when the floods and sea waves †¦ (p.12). This discourse exposes the truth about the conflict of the East and West on spiritual and materialistic grounds respectively. The writer seems to suggest that West is hollow at heart and worshipper of materialism whereas East is spiritually rich and deep-rooted in culture and traditions which cannot be snatched from them because they are their life and spirit. Muni’s these words point this fact out that ‘ At the end of Kali Yuga, this world and all other worlds will be destroyed and the Redeemer will come in the shape of a horse called â€Å"Kalki†, this horse will come to life and gallop and trample down all bad men’(page:13). Similarly, at individual and social level, the story exposes evils of poverty. Muni is awfully poor and under the burden of loans even for bare bread. The story reveals the fact that how strange the way of the world are. When Muni grows poorer and poorer, the people of his village begin to look down upon him as someone low and base. They do not treat him as a respectable individual of the society. It implies about the inhuman behavior of the fellow beings with one another when their social status is not equal. Poverty becomes a curse at home and in the society for the poor people like Muni. His wife quarrels with him because there is nothing to eat to live. Owing to his poverty nobody is ready to give him loans. The shop man who used to give him small loans has now refused to give anymore because the poor Muni has piteously failed to repay his former loans. Muni promises but without any use that ‘I will pay you everything on the first of the next month’ (p.3). His poverty causes him a great disgrace and he helplessly utters ‘My poverty is exposed to everybody. But what can I do’ (p.4)? He gets rid of the shopkeeper when he insults him before the eyes of the people Muni tells him that he will pay back as soon his daughter sends him money on his fiftieth birthday. Thus Muni’s poverty is symbolic to the poverty of the common people who are maltreated only for their poverty in this world which is mad with worship of the wealth and material things. Muni unlike the American is conservative. He says, the cinema has spoiled the people and taught them how to do evil things. He has least lust for material things and no high ideals in life. He only dreams of opening up small shop under a thatched roof, selling fried nuts, sweets and coconut to the travelers in need of quenching their thirst and mitigate their hunger. In other words, Muni is very good-hearted poor man who loves to serve humanity but the American has excessive lust for wealth has no love to serve humanity. He tries to gratify his aesthetic sense by buying the statue-horse but never thinks about spending his money for the benefits of the humanity. Besides, the story stresses upon the fact that the poor may have tender feelings for humanity but not the rich because they have mostly the hearts of gold and silver which are without sympathetic feelings for others. The American talks to Muni so long only because he has a great desire to buy the statue. In addition, the two men have little knowledge about each other’s society and culture. Muni fails to understand the reason why the American wants to buy the statue when it has no practical benefit at all. It also indicates that the poor and illiterate people have mostly least approach beyond their belly. The American also cannot realize that the statue is the cultural symbol of the people belonging to a small village, Kritam which represents whole India. To sell the statue is tantamount to sell cultural identity. However, Muni sells his two goats and the statue for hundred rupees because he has nothing to eat due to his poverty. He tells lie to his wife that he has sold his two goats in hundred rupees without mentioning the sale of the statue. Perhaps he does so due to two reasons. One reason is that he cannot imagine that the statue has such great importance for the American and he will not take it with him. Second reason is that the statue does not belong to him only but the whole village and by selling it he will get money to take home and please his wife who is mostly annoyed with him for poverty. It means that poverty may compel a person to go to such limits as telling lies and selling ones legacy. Furthermore, the Big House stands for discrimination in village of Kritam. It is only one such big house in the village whereas other abodes are no more than mere huts and mud houses. It is the symbol of monopoly and feudalism. Muni has to pay for using the back part of the Big House for his goats and sheep when Muni had good days and prosperous life with as many as forty goats in his pen. However, the Big House is a great source of relief for Muni and his family. He has hardly anything in his house even water and is dependent on the Big House for drinking purposes. Muni says, ‘Bath! Who can dream of a bath when you have to scratch the tank-bed for a bowl of water? We would all be parched and dead but for the Big House, where they let us take a pot of water from their well’ (p.4). In other words, the writer criticizes the poor condition of the South Indian people who been kept so much deprived by the rulers. They have worst condition and have no availability of daily communities as essential as drinking water. The writer wants to convey the message to the State about negligence and least care of the masses who living in exceedingly miserable plight. This poor condition also goes back to the colonial age of the Subcontinent when the colonizers ruled their colonies and did least for the welfare of the people who were the subjects. They proved looters of the resources of their colonies and did not improve their poor condition. They rather cause the flourishment of the feudal culture which is there long after their departure from the subcontinent. They have left but have left behind their influence and their discriminatory system among the Indians. The Big House is the representative of this concept. The Big House has well of water whereas the other population, not to speak of other daily commodities of life, has not even water for them to drink. The American has come to visit India which was colony like his own country of the USA but America has rose successfully from the slavery and has come to the fore front due to their sincere leaders and their welfare system of the State. The writer wants the world know about the poor condition of the South India where there is no standard of living at all. He seems to expose the bitter realities of life in pinching grip of austere poverty. Narayan like Guy de Maupassant is ranked as great figure in the world of modern short story. Maupassant he has followed the last two conditions as a writer: 1. a moral relation of the author to the subject, 2. the clearness of exposition, 3. sincerity, that is, an undisguised feeling of love or hatred for what the artist describes, But Narayan has followed the whole three ones quite successfully in his short stories. Also like him Narayan has the ability to compress text without losing the basic message. He was endowed with that particular gift, called talent, which consists in the author’s ability to direct, according to his tastes, his intensified, strained attention to this or that subject, in consequence of which the author who is endowed with this ability sees in those subjects upon which he directs his attention, something new, something which others did not see. Narayan evidently possessed that gift of seeing in subjects something which others did not see.

The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2440 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/02/14 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: Autism Essay Did you like this example? The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder has nearly doubled in recent years, and the numbers are staggering: nearly 1 in every 59 children are diagnosed with autism in the United States alone. Yet, there are so many questions surrounding the complexity and increase in diagnoses of this condition that affects so many in such diverse ways. (Autism Speaks) How autism originates in the first place and its impact on communication, both verbal and nonverbal, are questions that need to be continually scrutinized in order to better accommodate those who are affected, and, in turn, educate those who interact with the disorder in the most meaningful ways.. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder" essay for you Create order According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), â€Å"people with Autism Spectrum Disorder have difficulty with communication and interaction with other people, restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, and symptoms that hurt the person’s ability to function properly in school, work, and other areas of life.† (National Institute of Mental Health) Although autistic characteristics can manifest themselves in so many different ways, concern surrounding communication reverberates as the trademark characteristic of ASD, with symptoms of the disorder, such as â€Å"difficulty with social communication and interaction, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors† usually showing by the age of two or three. (Autism Speaks) For instance, a child might not understand how to work cooperatively in a group or look someone in the eye and make an introduction. Children with autism also often have trouble understanding the point of view of others, matching facial expression with what is being communicated, and having an â€Å"unusual tone of voice† that often sounds flat. (National Institute of Mental Health) Although symptoms of autism â€Å"must be present in the early developmental period,† often, understandably, many of these symptoms do not make themselves evident until a child is placed in situations that require more complex use of these skills, such as a school or another educational setting. (Autism Speaks) In order to begin to delve into the impact of ASD symptoms on modes of communication, it is vital to understand the complexity and uncertainty around the anatomical origin of autism in the first place. While there is no known specific biological cause, one of the strongest cases is for a genetic link, with â€Å"research suggest[ing] that genes can act together with influences from the environment to affect development in ways that lead to ASD.† (National Institute of Mental Health) This, in turn, influences how neurons, the specialized cells that are responsible for transmitting nerve signals, â€Å"connect and communicate with each other in the brain.† (Bhandari, Tamara) In reference to this statement, a study conducted at The University of Washington School of Medicine in St. Louis found that rats that lacked the gene absent in many of those with ASD in turn displayed an overabundance of connections between brain neurons, and this, in turn, influenced their basic abi lity to learn (Bhandari, Tamara). According to Azad Bonni, the head of the Department of Neuroscience at Washington, â€Å"This study raises the possibility that there may be too many synapses in the brains of patients with Autism.† (Bhandari, Tamara) According to Bonni, this overabundance of synapses and â€Å"miscommunication among neurons in the developing brain, correlates with impairments in learning, although we don’t know how.† (Bhandari, Tamara) There are six genes, called ‘ubiquitin ligases,’ which â€Å"attach a molecular tag called ubiquitin to proteins† at the focus of this study. (Bhandari, Tamara) These genes tell the brain which proteins should be kept and which should be thrown out. The same study looked specifically at one of these six genes: RNF8, the gene that is believed to mutate in those with ASD. This gene was removed from neurons in the cerebellum of mice, and â€Å"researchers found that neurons that lacked the RNF8 protein formed about 50 percent more synapses than those with the gene.† (Bhandari, Tamara) Although the mice walked normally, associated with motor function of the cerebellum, they were unable to learn new motor movements, a key symptom of ASD. Those with autism often display difficulty building social skills and simple skills like eye contact, bouncing a ball, or gauging how much energy to exert when lifting or pushing. (National Institute of Mental Health) The mice without an RNF8 gene were also unable to pick up a basic new skill, learning to close their eyes when a puff of air was blown at them: closing their eyes only ? of the time compared to those with a functioning gene closing their eyes ? of the time, a delayed and misunderstood reaction. (Bhandari, Tamara) Those with autism often can’t focus on one task for too long, or become consumed with a task, such as trying to put a puzzle together or sort objects. The study also reverberates the importance of the cerebellum â€Å"in higher cognitive functions such as language and attention, both of which are affected in autism.† (Bhandari, Tamara) While it would be thought that an increase in neural connections would increase brain function, it actually lead s to a repetitive and remediated nature of thought and action. Two trademarks of Autism are language delays and intense attachment to specific objects, both of which directly correlate with some lack of higher level thinking skills. (Bhandari, Tamara) Another study at Columbia University Medical Center adds more meaning to these findings, by associating this overabundance of synapses in the brain with a â€Å"slowdown in a normal pruning process during development.† (Gudsnuk, Kathryn, et al) Normally, â€Å"a burst of synapse formation occurs in infancy, particularly in the cortex, a region involved in autistic behaviors.† (Gudsnuk, Kathryn, et al) Normally, pruning takes out about half of the synapses, but, in the study, which looked at brains of those with autism who died from another cause, the pruning process had not done its job to the extent that it does in most brain cortexes. (Gudsnuk, Kathryn, et al) While this is just a correlation between a few studies, the new light it is shedding on brain formation and ASD is vital. It is also worth examining the function of the superior temporal sulcus in those with autism, which controls processing of visual information, and its role in â€Å"inability to interpret body language, facial expression, and gestures.† (Driver, Janine) Those with ASD often mistake gestures or do not realize the significance of what body language is communicating. This symptom of ASD was put to the test in research conducted by the University of Durham in 2009. The study presented autistic individuals with cartoon pictures showing specific emotions (happy, sad, angry), directions, and gestures without the use of faces or language.The participants had to rely solely on body language, such as skipping or clapping to come to a conclusion about how the figure was feeling. The study concluded that â€Å"participants had a tremendously difficult time reading the emotion and/or deciphering the direction of movement,† which is believed to be related to the gene mutation referen ced earlier which directly affects social ability. (Driver, Janine) According to Janine Driver, a contributor to Psychology Today, â€Å"These individuals are unable to decipher the communication cues bombarding them; resulting in not only a diminished capacity to properly communicate their wants to others, but an inability to feel empathy or socially relate to those around them.† (Driver, Janine) It doesn’t necessarily mean that they aren’t feeling, they are just unable to show it the way most people do. For example, during a pep rally, a student with ASD may misassociate cheering and noise as scary sounds, rather than excitement and become nervous. There isn’t a same mechanism present for decoding these sensory signals and reacting accordingly. Another study conducted by Dr. David Matsumoto interestingly examined body language of Olympic athletes. He saw a trend in how these people reacted to feeling certain emotions. While this doesn’t seem revolutionary, some of his subjects were blind, and yet still responded with basic physical movements and gestures representational of the emotion they were feeling. He therefore came to the conclusion that â€Å"it is reasonable to conclude that many of the behaviors, gestures and expressions we use to convey our feelings are deeply imbedded in our distinctly human code.† (Driver, Janine) This provides evidence that although there may be environmental risk factors for developing ASD, a genetic link cannot be ignored. While autism is not exclusionary to a specific race, gender, or socioeconomic class, there are some possible environmental risk factors associated with ASD, such as having a sibling with the disorder or older parents, having certain genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome, and a very low weight at birth. (National Institute of Mental Health) Some risk factors have also been debated more than others. According to Autism Speaks, â€Å"prenatal exposure to the chemicals thalidomide and valproic acid has been linked to increased risk of autism.† (Autism Speaks) Other possible environmental factors include deadly viruses or infections, such as rubella, and childhood immunizations. While none of these risk factors are completely inclusionary of those with Autism, many factors alongside observation of behavior are used in diagnosing ASD. After taking into account some of the possible biological causes and environmental risk factors associated with autism, it is also important to acknowledge a more individualized aspect of ASD: the environment that is created around the individual. As a special education teacher, I witness, everyday, the effects that educational and social influences can have on those with ASD and their communication skills. I have one student, in particular, who reminds me every day that genetics don’t paint the entire picture of what he is capable of. He is a freshman in high school, nonverbal, and speaks in only short phrases, characteristic of ASD, and often speaks in a repetitive nature. This is called echolalia, and is a â€Å"repeating of words or phrases.†(National Institute of Mental Health) If his social worker is coming after school, I usually hear about it intermittently throughout the entire day: it’s what he’s thinking about. Another trademark characteristic o f Autism that he exhibits is a narrow scope of topic and interest, but, nevertheless, there’s a brain process going on there. We affirm his thinking because it gives us a window into what is going on inside his head, and he is often excited when something he says is repeated back to him or if someone makes a connection to a movie he references. At the beginning of the year, he knew where Wisconsin was on a map. We learned two states every day, and he now knows forty-three states and counting and can put a map of the United States together by memory. I am reminded everyday that although his brain processes may be inhibited and limited, the science says so, and he he can’t have conversations with the depth that most can, there are a lot of processes occuring in his head, and I need to be cognizant of that. He has an amazing memory: almost photographic in some ways. He, and so may others, are capable of learning and thinking for themselves, we just need to give them the a venues to do so within their abilities. Autism Spectrum Disorder does not fit a specific mold, and small victories look different for every child. This specific student comes from a home of extremely low socioeconomic status, and I have reason to believe that most of his interaction and opportunity to communicate comes from interaction with social workers and school personnel. I have seen, first hand, how surrounding a child with caregivers and teachers who support a child with ASD in positive and meaningful ways can make all the difference in the student’s ability to be emotive and communicate. Students make a concentrated effort to interact with my freshman student with autism. They play sports with him and give him high-fives in the hallway. He will often laugh when someone says something he thinks is funny and he can point to objects he wants or doesn’t want. He can communicate, as basic as the interactions may be, he just has to be given the opportunity to do so. I witness everyday the bombardment of stimuli he tries to take in on a daily basis. He often covers his ears during lunch if there are too many discussions going on around him. He used to scream. I learn more every day about what it means to accommodate a student with ASD. Early intervention, creating a loving and supporting environment, and providing opportunities to communicate using an array of available modes, including talkboards, pictures, flashcards etc., are vital in supporting someone with ASD in and out of the classroom. One method of interaction, coined by Melanie Nind and Dave Hewett, authors of â€Å"Access to Communication,† is called Intensive Interaction. This practice â€Å"makes use of the range of interactive games that have been shown to occur in interactions between infants and their primary caregivers.† (Nind, Melanie Hewett, Dave) It takes into account the gap in basic ability to communicate present in those affected by ASD, and â€Å"incorporat e[s] interactive play intodaily routines in school.† (Nind, Melanie Hewett, Dave) One example that is given is using changing clothes, or â€Å"dressing situations,† such as putting on a jacket and boots, often a â€Å"non-personal and stressful routine† into a playful game, allowing for a more meaningful connection. (Nind, Melanie Hewett, Dave) This connection allows the student the opportunity to respond in a non-risk environment, creating a more enjoyable experience. Nind and Hewett found that, by using what they call â€Å"free-flowing interactive play,† that was integrated into a daily schedule, they were able to better gain the attention of the students and allow them opportunities to express themselves. I see, everyday, the importance of showing my students with autism that although they may not be able to completely express their emotions to me, I validate them and can still reciprocate the emotions I know they are feeling. It is important to be adaptable, modifying tasks, jobs, and communication modes so that they are accessible. The student I referenced earlier was, for the first time, given a talk board app loaded onto an iPad this year. I watched his face light up as he was able to use technology, something he loves, to point to movies he likes and to talk about or foods he is making in class that day. The words are repeated back to him through headphones. I have to remind myself on a daily basis to give him my all, because he deserves it. I don’t think, even with all of the research out there, that there is any replacement for that dedication.